A garden is a planned space,
usually outdoors, set aside for the display, cultivation, or enjoyment of
plants and other forms of nature. The garden can incorporate both natural and
man-made materials. The most common form today is known as a residential
garden, but the term garden has traditionally been a more general one. Zoos,
which display wild animals in simulated natural habitats, were formerly called
zoological gardens. Western gardens are almost universally based on plants,
with garden often signifying a shortened form of botanical garden. Some traditional
types of eastern gardens, such as Zen gardens, use plants sparsely or not at
all.
Gardens may exhibit structural
enhancements, sometimes called follies, including water features such as
fountains, ponds (with or without fish), waterfalls or creeks, dry creek beds,
statuary, arbors, trellises and more. Some gardens are for ornamental purposes
only, while some gardens also produce food crops, sometimes in separate areas,
or sometimes intermixed with the ornamental plants. Food-producing gardens are
distinguished from farms by their smaller scale, more labor-intensive methods,
and their purpose (enjoyment of a hobby or self-sustenance rather than
producing for sale). Flower gardens combine plants of different heights,
colors, textures, and fragrances to create interest and delight the senses.
Gardening is the activity of
growing and maintaining the garden.
This work is done by an amateur or
professional gardener. A gardener might also work in a non-garden setting, such
as a park, a roadside embankment, or other public space. Landscape architecture
is a related professional activity with landscape architects tending to
specialize in design for public and corporate clients.
Types of
gardens
A typical Italian garden at Villa Garzoni, near Pistoia
Back garden
Checkered garden in Tours, France
Cactus garden
Zen garden, Ryōan-ji
French formal garden in the Loire Valley
Bristol Zoo, England
Castelo Branco, Portugal
Hualien, Taiwan
The Italian gardens of El Escorial, Spain
An ornamental garden in the Auburn Botanical Gardens, Sydney,
Australia
Gardens may feature a particular plant or plant type(s);
• Back garden
• Bog garden
• Cactus garden
• Color garden
• Fernery
• Flower garden
• Front yard
• Kitchen garden
• Mary garden
• Orangery
• Orchard
• Rose garden
• Shade garden
• Vineyard
• Wildflower garden
• Winter garden
Gardens may feature a particular style or aesthetic:
• Bonsai
• Chinese garden
• Dutch garden
• English landscape
garden
• Gardens of the
French Renaissance
• French formal
garden
• French landscape
garden
• Italian
Renaissance garden
• Japanese garden
• Knot garden
• Korean garden
• Mughal garden
• Natural
landscaping
• Persian garden
• Pollinator garden
• Roman gardens
• Spanish garden
• Terrarium
• Trial garden
• Tropical garden
• Water garden
• Wild garden
• Xeriscaping
• Zen garden
Types of garden:
• Botanical garden
• Butterfly garden
• Butterfly zoo
• Chinampa
• Cold frame garden
• Community garden
• Container garden
• Cottage garden
• Cutting garden
• Forest garden
• Garden
conservatory
• Green wall
• Greenhouse
• Hanging garden
• Hydroponic garden
• Market garden
• Rain garden
• Raised bed
gardening
• Residential
garden
• Roof garden
• Sacred garden
• Sensory garden
• Square foot
garden
• Vertical garden
• Walled garden
• Windowbox
• Zoological garden
The earliest credible evidence of
either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in the middle of
the 15th century, in Yemen's Sufi monasteries.
Coffee beans were first exported
from Ethiopia to Yemen. Yemeni traders brought coffee back to their homeland
and began to cultivate the bean. The word qahwa originally meant wine, and
Sufis in Yemen used the beverage as an aid to concentration and as a kind of
spiritual intoxication when they chanted the name of God. Sufis used it to keep
themselves alert during their nighttime devotions. A translation of Al-Jaziri's
manuscript traces the spread of coffee from Arabia Felix (the present day
Yemen) northward to Mecca and Medina, and then to the larger cities of Cairo,
Damascus, Baghdad, and Constantinople. By 1414, the beverage was known in
Mecca, and in the early 1500s was spreading to the Mameluke Sultanate of Egypt
and North Africa from the Yemeni port of Mocha.[10][16] Associated with Sufism,
a myriad of coffee houses grew up in Cairo (Egypt) around the religious
University of the Azhar. These coffee houses also opened in Syria, especially
in the cosmopolitan city of Aleppo, and then in Istanbul, the capital of the
Ottoman Empire, in 1554. In 1511, it was forbidden for its stimulating effect
by conservative, orthodox imams at a theological court in Mecca. However, these
bans were to be overturned in 1524 by an order of the Ottoman Turkish Sultan
Suleiman I, with Grand Mufti Mehmet Ebussuud el-İmadi issuing a fatwa allowing
the consumption of coffee. In Cairo a similar ban was instituted in 1532, and
the coffeehouses and warehouses containing coffee beans were sacked. During the
16th century, it had already reached the rest of the Middle East, the Safavid
Empire and the Ottoman Empire. From the Middle East, coffee drinking spread to
Italy, then to the rest of Europe, and coffee plants were transported by the
Dutch to the East Indies and to the Americas.
Similarly, coffee was banned by the
Ethiopian Orthodox Church some time before the 18th century. However, in the
second half of the 19th century, Ethiopian attitudes softened towards coffee
drinking, and its consumption spread rapidly between 1880 and 1886; according
to Richard Pankhurst, "this was largely due to Emperor Menilek, who
himself drank it, and to Abuna Matewos who did much to dispel the belief of the
clergy that it was a Muslim drink."
The earliest mention of coffee
noted by the literary coffee merchant Philippe Sylvestre Dufour is a reference
to bunchum in the works of the 10th century CE Persian physician Muhammad ibn
Zakariya al-Razi, known as Rhazes in the West, but more definite information on
the preparation of a beverage from the roasted coffee berries dates from several
centuries later. One of the most important of the early writers on coffee was
Abd al-Qadir al-Jaziri, who in 1587 compiled a work tracing the history and
legal controversies of coffee entitled Umdat al safwa fi hill al-qahwa عمدة الصفوة في حل القهوة. He reported that one Sheikh, Jamal-al-Din
al-Dhabhani (d. 1470), mufti of Aden, was the first to adopt the use of coffee
(circa 1454).
Written By Shujah Khan Sadozai
Sadozai family living in Azad
Kashmir is locally known as Sudhan or Sardar is an martial tribe from
Sudhanoti, Poonch, Bagh, Kotli districts of Azad Kashmir. The tribe is known
for his bravery and greatest share in the subsequent fighting and sacrifices
for Kashmir’s history. The tribe has moved from Afghanistan to Kashmir region.
The Sadozai living Azad Kashmir are traditionally descendants of Jassi Khan, an
Sadozai figure who moved to Kashmir some centuries ago along with his Sadozai
troops.
Sadozai tribe living in Azad Kashmir is a tribe of professional fighters and soldiers. They are a brave and self respecting people. They can be easily made to resort to Arms for a cause. They, some time, differ with one another, in ordinary life, but just as much easily and quickly get together in times of crises. In social life they follow time old customs and traditions, which may not be easily acceptable to a modern man but these traditions have a good basis and a good background. Though conservative in their thinking, basically they are a religious people, God fearing and believing tenaciously in God and His existence. Sadozai possess a good physical appearance and some of them could be classed as one of the most handsome of human race.
It is said that some 500 years or so ago Sadozai in western parts of Poonch (now in Azad Kashmir) and fought for their existence, but the local people dominated them. In this period, they multiplied quickly and emerged into a strong and powerful tribe called. Jassi Khan, an Afghan Sadozai warrior, first attacked Kotli, in the Murree hills with his powerfull Pashtun army men. Another tribe held the opposite bank of the Jhelum and was tyrannised over the locals of that area, the locals called in the Jassi Khan, Sadozai to their aid. The Sadozai having defeated the tribe, seized their country and named it Sudhanoti, it was at this time that they took the title of Sudhan, The Sudhan which originates fron Sanskirt langauge, meaning "just and fair" this name was an honorary name given to their Afghan ancestors; Nawab Jassi Khan and his battlelion. which they had earned as a compliment to their valour from the locals. In this period, they multiplied quickly and emerged into a strong and powerful tribe. Shrine of Jassi Khan can be found at Jessa Peer, near Mang and Sudhan betka organized by Jassi Khan can be found at Holar in Kotli.
Sadozai had never reconciled the Dogra and Sikh rule on their homeland because of their Pashtun decent and traditional links with people of eastern Afghanistan.
Sikhs and Dogras had to fight the Sadozai in wars spread Over a fairly long time. Sadozai resisted the Sikhs and Dogra, till powerful armies of Sikhs and Dogras subjugated them and committed unheard of atrocities on them. But they have survived as a tribe to the present day. This happened between 1830-1840, much before the Treaty of Amritsar, which was concluded in 1846.
When Sadozais were defeated, in 1837, the Dogras imprisoned as many as five thousand women and children and as many men were ruthlessly beheaded. Their heads were presented to the Dogras barbaric forces against five rupees per head. This cutting of heads and their sale continued for a period of two months or so. In order to suppress these people for ever, the Dogra forces flayed alive their leaders. As many as twenty people were flayed alive. They were refused even a drop of water. Their bodies were hanged from trees. Some of these trees are still there to bear witness to these ghastly events. As far as one can see and judge world history, such atrocious events could not be easily found in the history of any Land.
In 1837, tribal chief of Sadozai tribe, Shams Khan started a war against the Dogras in the hill region of Poonch and there were bloody rebbelions between Sadozai tribesmen and Dogra army in the 18th century. Because of the independent identity of their homeland as a princely state, formidable mountain barriers, and districts ethnic characteristics, there interaction between the inhabitants of Poonch and those of the adjoining areas of the State; their traditional links were with the North-West Frontier Province and eastern Afghanistan. Shams Khan, who was chief of Sadozai tribe, Shams Khan had rose a war against Dogra, Gulab Singh’s forces, Sudhan tribemen braverly defeated the Dogras and libearted their areas from Dogra, but Sikh empire attacked Sadozai tribemens from Kahuta, Punjab gave currency to a rumour that both of them had been killed in a battle. Sabz Ali Khan and Malli Khan along many other Sadozai leaders of the revolt, who were captured and flayed alive at Mang.
18th century to 19th century, Poonch was one of the major recruiting grounds for the British Army, beacuse Sadozai people would always think of themselves as fightersa and there were no economic opportunities and inadequate landholdings in this area. So, most of them fought alongside the British, unlike other Kashmiri Muslims, who had enough land to till and were involved in economic activities. Sudhan had military and combat skills. This brings us to the last great war and Sudhans history.
This war gave Sadozai a great chance to fight on all fronts of the war. They fought in North Africa and Europe all over. Against the Japanese, they fought in Burma, Indonesia, Malaysia and other fronts. After Sadozai came back from war fronts, Indo-I’akistan continent was witnessing a unique political struggle and was on the verge of independence. This struggle for independence affected every big or small town. A new age was emerging with a brilliance never witnessed for ages before. Sadozais were thus affected by the magnificent struggle for freedom. Dogra rule seemed miserably crumbling along with the British Raj, where the sun never set for two hundred years or so. Filled with a spirit of new urge to be free, the Sadozais, like all Kashmiri patriots, were ready to do their part in freedom struggle. In fact they were the first to challenge the Maharaja and his armies all over the state.
In 1947, Dogra rulers were once again threatened by Sardar Ibrahim Khan, 32 year old Sadozai from Rawalakot, who organized army of 60.000 ex-serviesmen from Sadozai tribe to fight the Dogra, there were 60,000 Sudhans who had served in the British Army. Poonch was one of the major recruiting grounds for the British. These Sadozai people own Pathan origin and would always think of themselves as fighters. There were no economic opportunities and inadequate landholdings in this area. So, most of them fought alongside the British, unlike Kashmiri Muslims, who had enough land to till and were involved in economic activities. Sudhan had military and combat skills. toegether with Pakistani Pathan (Pashtun) tribemen, it was Sadozai who libarated ‘Azad Kashmir’.
Sadozai tribe living in Azad Kashmir is a tribe of professional fighters and soldiers. They are a brave and self respecting people. They can be easily made to resort to Arms for a cause. They, some time, differ with one another, in ordinary life, but just as much easily and quickly get together in times of crises. In social life they follow time old customs and traditions, which may not be easily acceptable to a modern man but these traditions have a good basis and a good background. Though conservative in their thinking, basically they are a religious people, God fearing and believing tenaciously in God and His existence. Sadozai possess a good physical appearance and some of them could be classed as one of the most handsome of human race.
It is said that some 500 years or so ago Sadozai in western parts of Poonch (now in Azad Kashmir) and fought for their existence, but the local people dominated them. In this period, they multiplied quickly and emerged into a strong and powerful tribe called. Jassi Khan, an Afghan Sadozai warrior, first attacked Kotli, in the Murree hills with his powerfull Pashtun army men. Another tribe held the opposite bank of the Jhelum and was tyrannised over the locals of that area, the locals called in the Jassi Khan, Sadozai to their aid. The Sadozai having defeated the tribe, seized their country and named it Sudhanoti, it was at this time that they took the title of Sudhan, The Sudhan which originates fron Sanskirt langauge, meaning "just and fair" this name was an honorary name given to their Afghan ancestors; Nawab Jassi Khan and his battlelion. which they had earned as a compliment to their valour from the locals. In this period, they multiplied quickly and emerged into a strong and powerful tribe. Shrine of Jassi Khan can be found at Jessa Peer, near Mang and Sudhan betka organized by Jassi Khan can be found at Holar in Kotli.
Sadozai had never reconciled the Dogra and Sikh rule on their homeland because of their Pashtun decent and traditional links with people of eastern Afghanistan.
Sikhs and Dogras had to fight the Sadozai in wars spread Over a fairly long time. Sadozai resisted the Sikhs and Dogra, till powerful armies of Sikhs and Dogras subjugated them and committed unheard of atrocities on them. But they have survived as a tribe to the present day. This happened between 1830-1840, much before the Treaty of Amritsar, which was concluded in 1846.
When Sadozais were defeated, in 1837, the Dogras imprisoned as many as five thousand women and children and as many men were ruthlessly beheaded. Their heads were presented to the Dogras barbaric forces against five rupees per head. This cutting of heads and their sale continued for a period of two months or so. In order to suppress these people for ever, the Dogra forces flayed alive their leaders. As many as twenty people were flayed alive. They were refused even a drop of water. Their bodies were hanged from trees. Some of these trees are still there to bear witness to these ghastly events. As far as one can see and judge world history, such atrocious events could not be easily found in the history of any Land.
In 1837, tribal chief of Sadozai tribe, Shams Khan started a war against the Dogras in the hill region of Poonch and there were bloody rebbelions between Sadozai tribesmen and Dogra army in the 18th century. Because of the independent identity of their homeland as a princely state, formidable mountain barriers, and districts ethnic characteristics, there interaction between the inhabitants of Poonch and those of the adjoining areas of the State; their traditional links were with the North-West Frontier Province and eastern Afghanistan. Shams Khan, who was chief of Sadozai tribe, Shams Khan had rose a war against Dogra, Gulab Singh’s forces, Sudhan tribemen braverly defeated the Dogras and libearted their areas from Dogra, but Sikh empire attacked Sadozai tribemens from Kahuta, Punjab gave currency to a rumour that both of them had been killed in a battle. Sabz Ali Khan and Malli Khan along many other Sadozai leaders of the revolt, who were captured and flayed alive at Mang.
18th century to 19th century, Poonch was one of the major recruiting grounds for the British Army, beacuse Sadozai people would always think of themselves as fightersa and there were no economic opportunities and inadequate landholdings in this area. So, most of them fought alongside the British, unlike other Kashmiri Muslims, who had enough land to till and were involved in economic activities. Sudhan had military and combat skills. This brings us to the last great war and Sudhans history.
This war gave Sadozai a great chance to fight on all fronts of the war. They fought in North Africa and Europe all over. Against the Japanese, they fought in Burma, Indonesia, Malaysia and other fronts. After Sadozai came back from war fronts, Indo-I’akistan continent was witnessing a unique political struggle and was on the verge of independence. This struggle for independence affected every big or small town. A new age was emerging with a brilliance never witnessed for ages before. Sadozais were thus affected by the magnificent struggle for freedom. Dogra rule seemed miserably crumbling along with the British Raj, where the sun never set for two hundred years or so. Filled with a spirit of new urge to be free, the Sadozais, like all Kashmiri patriots, were ready to do their part in freedom struggle. In fact they were the first to challenge the Maharaja and his armies all over the state.
In 1947, Dogra rulers were once again threatened by Sardar Ibrahim Khan, 32 year old Sadozai from Rawalakot, who organized army of 60.000 ex-serviesmen from Sadozai tribe to fight the Dogra, there were 60,000 Sudhans who had served in the British Army. Poonch was one of the major recruiting grounds for the British. These Sadozai people own Pathan origin and would always think of themselves as fighters. There were no economic opportunities and inadequate landholdings in this area. So, most of them fought alongside the British, unlike Kashmiri Muslims, who had enough land to till and were involved in economic activities. Sudhan had military and combat skills. toegether with Pakistani Pathan (Pashtun) tribemen, it was Sadozai who libarated ‘Azad Kashmir’.
Written By Shujah Khan Sadozai currently staying in Belgium
